Between Empirical Data and Anti-Blackness: A Critical Perspective on Anti-Asian Hate Crimes and Hate Incidents

While women are more likely to report a hate incident to the StopAAPIHate reporting site, multiple sources of data show that men are as likely or more likely to experience a hate incident than women. [...]Asian Critical Theory (or AsianCrit) allows us to examine how race and racism affect the lives of Asian Americans within US society.5 Through this theoretical lens, we can better understand our unique racialization as Asian Americans;this racialization positions us as both model minorities and perpetual outsiders to US society. [...]even if not always dominant, the interspersal of images of Black-on-Asian-crime in coverage of anti-Asian violence tends to emphasize physical assaults by Black individuals, thereby playing on commonly accepted racist stereotypes of Black criminality.10 And while we may recognize that dominant discourses of safety and its antithesis (e.g., with regard to anti-Asian violence) are rooted in white supremacy and anti-Blackness (Jenkins 2021), most critiques of anti-Asian violence rarely examine the interconnections between them.11 For this reason, a large part of our paper calls for a critical racial analysis of widely circulating narratives around racist incidents against Asian Americans and their racialization as non-Black people of color. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND NARRATIVE CONTEXT In January and February of 2020, the first cases of COVID-19 in the United States were detected by public health agencies.12 The source of the virus was likely China (ibid), but the World Health Organization advised media organizations not to "attach locations or ethnicity" to the disease to avoid stigmatizing ethnic groups.

Ten Years After Oak Creek: Federal Policy Recommendations to Protect Communities Targeted by Hate

2022 was a year marked with significant anniversaries of hate against the AAPI community both historic and recent, from the 40th anniversary of the hate-driven murder of Chinese American immigrant Vincent Chin to the one-year anniversary of recent mass shootings in Atlanta and Indianapolis. These commemorations, moreover, came amidst a series of hate crimes targeting Sikh men in Richmond Hill, Queens, and a years-long spike in violence against Asian Americans - particularly Asian American women - ignited by the COVID-19 pandemic. One anniversary in 2022, however, is both important on its own right as a marker in the history of targeted violence and useful for contextualizing recent trends of hate in the US: the 10-year remembrance of the shooting at a gurdwara, a Sikh house of worship, in Oak Creek WI.

No Place for Hate California: A Model for Community-Centered Policymaking

These are just three of more than 11,000 reports of hate against Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPIs) shared with the Stop AAPI Hate coalition during the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. Many more acts continue to go unreported, making the actual number much higher-potentially in the millions. Reports of anti-AAPI hate come from all fifty states and the District of Columbia, with nearly 40 percent from California. In response to the rise in hate against AAPI communities, Stop AAPI Hate introduced No Place for Hate California, a package of first-in-the-nation, state-level policy proposals. Together, these proposals take a gender-based, public health, and civil rights approach to addressing the racialized and sexualized verbal harassment experienced by AAPIs (especially AAPI women) in public, which comprise a majority of the reports submitted to Stop AAPI Hate. Stop AAPI Hate partnered with state legislators and mobilized a coalition of over fifty community-based organizations.

Addressing anti-semitism in social work education

Antisemitism, one of the oldest forms of prejudice and oppression is surging throughout the world. It ranges from verbal abuse to the destruction of property to murder. In the last two years, attacks against Jews in the United States were the overwhelming target of religion-based hate crimes. Stereotypes and myths continue to fuel prejudice and antisemitism in society. Factors such as anti-Israel sentiments, remarks by persons in power, the use of social media, white nationalism, and even the Covid 19 pandemic have contributed to its escalation.As a result of the increasing violence, the U.S. legislature held a hearing on confronting antisemitic terrorism with one outcome being that social workers and community advocates were needed to join law enforcement in the effort to heal and work for justice. Social work with its mandate to promote social justice and human rights and challenge oppression cannot ignore antisemitism and its impact on individuals and societies. However, the subject is basically ignored in the curriculum. This paper offers a brief history of antisemitism and presents guidelines and models for integrating it into social work programs.

REFRAMING HATE

The concept and naming of "hate crime," and the adoption of special laws to address it, provoked controversy and raised fundamental questions when they were introduced in the 1980s. In the decades since, neither hate crime itself nor those hotly debated questions have abated. To the contrary, hate crime has increased in recent years-although the prominent target groups have shifted over time-and the debate over hate crime laws has reignited as well. The still-open questions range from the philosophical to the doctrinal to the pragmatic: What justifies the enhanced punishment that hate crime laws impose based on the perpetrator's motivation? Does that enhanced punishment infringe on the perpetrator's rights to freedom of belief and expression? How can we know or prove a perpetrator's motivation? And, most practical of all: Do hate crime laws work? This Essay proposes that we reframe our understanding of what we label as hate crimes. It argues that those crimes are not necessarily the acts of hate-filled extremists motivated by deeply held, fringe beliefs, but instead often reflect the broader, even mainstream, social environment that has marked some social groups as the expected or even acceptable targets for crime and violence. In turn, hate crimes themselves influence the social environment by reinforcing recognizable patterns of discrimination. The Essay maintains that we should broaden our understanding of the motivations for and effects of hate crimes and draws connections between hate crimes and seemingly disparate phenomena that have recently captured the nation's attention.

U.S. HATE CRIME TRENDS: WHAT DISAGGREGATION OF THREE DECADES OF DATA REVEALS ABOUT A CHANGING THREAT AND AN INVISIBLE RECORD

When prejudice-related data are combined and analyzed over time, critical information is uncovered about overall trends, related intermittent spikes, and less common sharp inflectional shifts in aggression. These shifts impact social cohesion and grievously harm specific sub-groups when aggression escalates and is redirected or mainstreamed. These data, so critical to public policy formation, show that we are in such a historic inflection period now. Moreover, analysis of the latest, though partial Federal Bureau of Investigation hate crime data release, when overlaid with available data from excluded large jurisdictions, reveals hate crimes hit a record high in 2021 in the United States that previously went unreported. This Essay analyzes the most recent national data as well as various numerical and policy milestones that accompanied the historic, yet incomplete, implementation of hate crime data collection and related statutes over recent decades. This analysis of emerging trends in the United States is undertaken in the context of bigoted aggression broken down over time.

Rise of anti-Asian violence and the COVID-19 pandemic for Asian Americans

The COVID-19 pandemic has been accompanied by a rise in anti-Asian hate crimes as well as other forms of discrimination. As a result, Asian Americans have had to contend with not just the isolation, illness, and economic difficulties of the pandemic but also the rise in anti-Asian sentiment. In order to spotlight the ways in which Asian Americans have coped, the Asian American Journal of Psychology provides a two-part special issue on Asian Americans and the COVID-19 pandemic. This article serves to introduce Part 1. The articles in this collection not only provide a close look at the experiences of Asian Americans but also examine the protective variables that moderate and/or mediate the link between the experiences of discrimination and well-being. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) Impact Statement What is the public significance of this article?-This article provides an overview of the special issue on Asian Americans and the COVID-19 pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

Corporate social responsibility and public diplomacy as formulas to reduce hate speech on social media in the fake news era

PurposeAnalyse the presence of hate speech in society, placing special emphasis on social media. In this sense, the authors strive to build a formula to moderate this type of content, in which platforms and public institutions cooperate, from the fields of corporate social responsibility and public diplomacy, respectively.Design/methodology/approachTo this aim, it is important to focus efforts on the creation of counter-narratives;the establishment of content moderation guidelines, which are not necessarily imposed by unilateral legislation;the promotion of suitable scenarios for the involvement of civil society;transparency on the part of social media companies;and supranational cooperation that is as transnational as possible. To exemplify the implementation of initiatives against hate speech, two cases are analysed that are paradigmatic for assuming two effective approaches to the formula indicated by the authors.FindingsThe authors analyse, in the case of the European Union, its "Code of conduct to counteract illegal online hate speech”, which included the involvement of different social media companies. And in the case of Canada, the authors discuss the implementation of the bill to include a definition of hate speech and the establishment of specific sanctions for this in the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Canadian Penal Code.Originality/valueThe case of the European Union was a way of seeking consensus with social media companies without legislation, while the case of Canada involved greater legislative and penalisation. Two ways of seeking the same goal: curbing hate speech.

The COVID-19 Outbreak as a Trigger Event for Sinophobic Hate Crimes in the United Kingdom

We assessed whether the COVID-19 outbreak in the United Kingdom was associated with a rise in sinophobic hate crimes as well as the temporal distribution of victimization rates. A victimization survey (N = 393) showed that following the first known case of COVID-19 in the United Kingdom, Chinese/East Asian persons had a higher likelihood of being hate crime or incident victims than members of other ethnic minority groups. Specifically, victimization reported by Chinese/East Asian participants reached its highest level in March 2020 (before lockdown);it then dropped significantly after an initial relaxation of restrictions in May 2020. Overall, we documented a temporary, potentially slightly delayed hate crime trigger effect of the COVID-19 outbreak. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of British Journal of Criminology is the property of Oxford University Press / USA and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Looking Hateworthy: An Investigation of the Relationship Between Chinese Phenotypicality and COVID-19-Related Prejudice and Discrimination

Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been an increasing number of hate crimes perpetrated against Chinese and non-Chinese Asian Americans. Some hate incidents suggest that Chinese Asian Americans have been mainly targeted followed by non-Chinese Asian Americans. The present study examined the influence of victim Chinese phenotypicality (CP) and participant individual differences on COVID-19-related prejudice and discrimination. Participants were presented with a mock news story detailing a restaurant employee (varying in CP) who tested positive for COVID-19 but went to work despite warnings to quarantine and allegedly spread COVID-19 to other employees and customers. CP was manipulated through photographs embedded within the mock news story of the employee (White (control) vs. Low CP vs. High CP). After reading the news story, participants completed measures of prejudice and discrimination endorsement along with measures of individual differences. Results revealed that CP influenced prejudice and support for discrimination, but only for individuals with certain characteristics (e.g., low income). The findings highlight individual difference characteristics among perpetrators of prejudice and discrimination against Asian Americans, in addition to phenotypic variations among those who may be victims of hate related to the COVID-19 pandemic. © The Author(s) 2022.

TMS Asian/Pacific Islander (API) Working Group Seeks to Raise Awareness

While API has a sizeable presence in the TMS community, they are underrepresented in leadership roles. This is similar to what is seen throughout the US. Asian Americans comprise 13% of the American workforce, but only hold 6% of leadership positions. The discrepancy is even greater in the technology sector at 27% and 14%, respectively. This disproportionate representation has often sidelined the voice of the API community--a situation that is particularly dangerous in our current times. Although anti-Asian hate is not a new phenomenon, crimes against Asian/Pacific Islander (API) communities rose considerably during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The experience of hate incidents across racial and ethnic groups during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Introduction: Racism is a root cause of ill health for communities of color, and hate incidents are one manifestation of racism. Marginalized racial and ethnic groups, including but not limited to Asian Americans, have been the target of highly publicized violence, hate, and discrimination which has been amplified during the COVID-19 pandemic. Objectives: This paper investigates (1) the prevalence of hate incidents across racial and ethnic groups, and (2) the relationship between race and ethnicity and hate incidents during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. We also seek to (3) situate study findings within theories of racism. Methods: This study utilizes national data from the Understanding America Study (UAS) COVID-19 Longitudinal Survey from June 10, 2020 to March 30, 2021 (n = 8,436). Hate incidents in six categories were examined: being treated with less courtesy, receiving poorer service, others acting as if they were not smart, others acting as if they were afraid of them, being threatened or harassed, and experiencing any of the previous categories of hate incidents. Main analyses were conducted via population averaged logistic panel regression. Results: The majority of members of all six marginalized racial and ethnic groups reported at least one hate incident during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, all marginalized racial or ethnic groups had statistically significant higher odds of experiencing at least two categories of hate incidents compared to white individuals. Asian, AI/AN, Black, and Multiracial groups had significantly higher odds of experiencing each category of hate incident. All marginalized racial and ethnic groups had significantly higher odds of receiving poorer service and others acting as if they were afraid of them. Conclusion: All marginalized racial and ethnic groups experienced significant levels of hate incidents within the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. The public health community must continue to research, monitor, treat, and prevent hate incidents as a public health issue while recognizing the social and historical contexts of structural and interpersonal racism in the US.

Evaluating hate crime third party reporting services: perspectives from voluntary advisors

Purpose>Third party reporting (TPR) services provide a route for victims of hate crime to report their experiences to an organisation other than the police. There is repeated evidence of under-reporting of hate crimes within the UK, and many victims of hate crime are unaware of the existence of TPR mechanisms. Little research attention has been given to understanding of the merits of TPR, beyond evaluating how often they are used. This study aims to explore the delivery of TPR from an advisor perspective.Design/methodology/approach>The research evaluated a small TPR centre based within a charitable organisation. The research, part of an undergraduate study, analysed the experiences of volunteer advisors working on the service through a semi-structured questionnaire.Findings>Results were mixed. Findings indicated the service contributed to an enhanced awareness of hate crimes in the community;however, greater promotion of the TPR centre was advocated. The results also indicated a significant lack of understanding and knowledge by trained volunteer advisors about hate crimes.Social implications>A lack of informed awareness of what hate crimes are could result in victims of hate crime not being recognised or supported as such.Originality/value>Most hate crime research is victim centred, and this study is innovative in looking at those receiving hate crime reports. There is limited evidence on TPR service provision in the UK, particularly on service delivery staff, and this research contributes to the gap in knowledge.

Everyday racism increase for Asians in the U.S. during the COVID-19 pandemic

The United States (U.S.) has a long history of racism and xenophobia, especially around infectious outbreaks. Recently, the associations of COVID-19 to China and Chinese people have been reflected in a surge of anti-Asian sentiment and hate crimes. Therefore, the present study examines the perceived change in everyday racism among Asians in the U.S. during the COVID-19 outbreak. This study used self-report surveys to assess the perceptions of everyday racism before and during the pandemic among Asians, Latinxs, and Whites residing in the U.S. We tested a 3 (race [Asians vs. Latinxs vs. Whites]) x 2 (perceptions [before vs. during pandemic]) analysis of covariance with repeated measures for perceptions to determine whether there were differences between racial groups for everyday racism before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings strongly indicate that Asians in the U.S. perceived a change in everyday racism during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to Latinxs and Whites. Exploratory findings show that East and Southeast Asians, in particular, experienced the steepest perceived increase in everyday racism. Anti-Asian sentiment seems to have intensified in the U.S. during the COVID-19 pandemic, as evident in the rise of everyday racism against Asians. These experiences may serve as additional stressors for Asians in the U.S. during these already distressing times and disproportionately impact East and Southeast Asians. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) Impact Statement The present study suggests that Asians in the United States perceived an influx of everyday racism during the COVID-19 pandemic as compared to Latinxs and Whites. In particular, East and Southeast Asians experienced the steepest increase in racism-related experiences. Overall findings highlight an alarming escalation in everyday exchanges of anti-Asian sentiment during the COVID-19 pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

STOPPING AAPI HATE: STUDENT REFLECTIONS ON THE PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS

Jeung et al asserts that from its inception in March 2020, one of SAH's objectives was to shape the narrative about anti-Asian hate. Rather than framing COVID-19 discrimination as isolated incidents by a few prejudiced individuals, the coalition wanted to 1) connect it to historic racism against Asian Americans;2) articulate the widespread, systemic nature of this racism;and 3) promote solidarity with other communities of color. As Speaker Pelosi's speech and the LA Times op-ed "Anti-Asian Hate Crimes Are Surging. Along with raising awareness about COVID-19 discrimination, SAH sought to develop policies that addressed the roots and trends of the problem. Their data analysis revealed that most incidents were not hate crimes, but primarily cases of harassment and shunning. Consequently, in formulating policy solutions SAH prioritized models of public education, restorative justice, and civil rights enforcement over hate crime enforcement.

NOWHERE TO GO: ANTI-ASIAN HATE CRIMES IN 1945 AND TODAY

Higuchi asserts that Iyekichi Higuchi prepared to leave the Heart Mountain camp for Japanese Americans in May 1945 to return to San Jose, California, look for a home for his wife and two at-home children, and to find a job. He had been forced to sell his 14.25-acre home in San Jose three years earlier when the federal government had forced 120,000 Japanese Americans from the West Coast because of hysteria about the alleged security threat they posed in the days following the 7 December 1941, Japanese attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. What faced those returning Japanese Americans mirrors the hate crimes now facing Americans of Asian descent who are blamed for spreading the COVID-19 virus that originally started in China to the United States. Since the pandemic took over in March, thousands of Asian Americans have been accosted in public spaces, spit on or assaulted and told to go back where they came from, even if that was not Asia at all.

"Didn't Japanese Internment Camps Happen in Japan, Not in America?" An Inquiry Project Challenging Hidden Stories in American History

Using the frameworks of literary understanding and difficult knowledge, this study examines sixth graders' responses to mixed-genre books about Japanese incarceration camps. Anti-Asian hate crimes can be documented back to the 1800s but have been recently exacerbated and increased due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Kelly Yang, the Chinese American author of Front Desk, recently tweeted about two public incidents of racism related to the pandemic. On Apr 14, 2020, Yang noted that a couple of teenagers called her "Chinese virus" multiple times during her free online writing class through Instagram Live.

Anti-Asian Xenophobia, Hate Crime Victimization, and Fear of Victimization During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

While the World Health Organization advised against referring to COVID-19 using racial overtones, as the COVID-19 pandemic spread, many disparagingly called it the "Wuhan virus," the "Chinese virus," and other terms. In this context, the FBI warned police agencies about an expected increase in anti-Asian hate crimes during the early months of the pandemic. But, while some researchers and media outlets discussed these potential increases at length, very few studies have been able to directly assess the nature of anti-Asian hate and bias victimization during the pandemic. Following this, the current study directly examines variation in anti-Asian bias and victimization in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, this research presents results from two studies using a survey of 3,163 non-Asian and 575 Asian American and Pacific Islander respondents, respectively. The first study examines the prevalence of anti-Asian xenophobia among the non-Asian sample and assesses differences in these prejudicial attitudes across respondent characteristics, while the second study examines variation in experiences with bias during the pandemic among the Asian sample. The results illustrate the ubiquity of anti-Asian sentiment, suggesting that those who indicate greater fear of the pandemic report more prejudicial attitudes, as well as important racial differences in these patterns. The results also demonstrate the extent to which the pandemic has impacted individual experiences with anti-Asian bias victimization, such that more than one-third of Asian respondents report bias victimization during the pandemic, and more than half of Asian respondents report that they know someone who has been victimized. These patterns have important implications for addressing COVID-19-related hate crime moving forward.

"Go back to China with your (expletive) virus": A revelatory case study of anti-Asian racism during COVID-19

Since coronavirus disease (COVID-19) emerged at the beginning of 2020, reports of anti-Asian racism have surged, yet little is known in the empirical literature about participants' lived experience of racism during this time. We designed a qualitative, intrinsic, revelatory case study to examine the different types of anti-Asian racism being perpetrated, and the contexts and perpetrators during the first 6 months of COVID-19. We analyzed the online and written responses of 193 self-identified Asian Americans from over 32 states and corroborated their experiences with news articles, journal articles, and reports of anti-Asian hate crimes published during the same period. Our analysis yielded 11 types of racist experiences: (a) No direct personal experience, only vicarious, (b) Stared at, glared at, shunned, (c) Singled out and treated poorly, (d) Indirectly referenced in third person, (e) Was the butt of a racist joke, (f) Blamed for the virus, (g) Stereotyped with racist characterization, (h) Told to go back to an Asian country, (i) Called a racial slur, (j) Hostile verbal assault, and (k) Physically threatened. Regarding the context and perpetrator of anti-Asian racism, our analysis yielded seven subthemes: (a) from friends and family, (b) at school and work, (c) in daily tasks, (d) while commuting, (e) in the socialization of children, (f) in online spaces, and (g) from police and security officers. Our findings showcase the wide range of anti-Asian racism and underscore the need to integrate scientific research with advocacy efforts to enhance awareness of anti-Asian racism. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) Impact Statement We designed a qualitative study to examine anti-Asian racism during the first 6 months of COVID-19 in the U.S. We wanted to know what types of racism were being perpetrated, by whom, and in what settings. Our findings revealed a wider range of anti-Asian racism than what has been captured in the scientific literature and advocacy efforts to document Asian American experiences of racism. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

Online Hate: The New Virus

In one of the most egregious examples, a horrendous hate crime that occurred on July 11,2020, an 89-yearold Asian grandmother was set on fire by two men as she was walking outside her home in Brooklyn, New York.3 Despite this clearly violent act, the New York City Police Department remained hesitant to classify this as a hate crime.3 Interestingly, in the same neighborhood, only a week before this incident, antiAsian flyers were posted.3 The findings reported by Hohl et al. further confirm these unsettling trends, demonstrating that online anti-Asian sentiments have been rising, with the peak occurring in March 2020. Nguyen et al. showcased how area-level racist sentiment online has been associated with residential racial prejudice,12 and results from Muller and Schwartz showed the link between racist hashtags and real-world hate crimes.13 Yet, despite strong evidence linking the discussion of hate online with real-world impacts, as further exemplified in the research by Hohl et al., this has been met with lackluster countermeasures and response from public health officials and ultimately has done little to spark the civic action needed to tackle and prevent the perpetuation of online hate head on. Consider other domains, where ample evidence has been provided that sentiment on Twitter is predictive of stock market fluctuations.14 Or consider the real-world consequences of errant tweets from those with influential power such as celebrities-for instance, Kylie Jenner's singular tweet, comprising a mere 18 words (including terms "sooo" and "urg") to illustrate her dissatisfaction with Snapchat. The repercussions of this tweet were extensive, equating to roughly $72 million in loss per word that was used, amounting to a total of $1.3 billion in stock loss for Snapchat.15 In another example, Elon Musk's 2020 tweet commenting that Tesla's stock price was too high resulted in significant losses to the carmaker in excess of $14 billion.16 These examples illustrate the power of words.